Most of the DHA in fish and multi-cellular organisms with access to cold-water oceanic foods originates from photosynthetic and heterotrophic microalgae, and becomes increasingly concentrated in organisms the further they are up the food chain. DHA has a positive effect on diseases such as hypertension, arthritis, atherosclerosis, depression, adult-onset diabetes mellitus, myocardial infarction, thrombosis, and some cancers. Given the importance of all omega-3 fatty acids in the diets of infants, the Institute of Medicine set an adequate intake of 0.5 g of omega-3 fatty acids per day during the first 12 months of life. DHA plays a role in mediating the expression of at least 100 genes in the areas of neural development, function, and metabolism.32,33 Between 1997 and 2006, 15 prospective cohort studies examined the association between ω3-PUFA intake and Alzheimer's disease; 13 showed a protective effect of increased DHA or fish intake on the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease.34 DHA is an essential nutrient in the retina for visual acuity. HHS Patients with cardiovascular disease or Type II diabetes are often advised to adopt a low-fat diet with a high proportion of carbohydrate. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is an omega-3 fatty acid that is a primary structural component of the human brain, cerebral cortex, skin, and retina. DHA is a major component of the human eye, brain, skin, and sperm. 10.4.2.2 Fractionation of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids. However, sufficient synthesis to enable tissue accretion is limited at birth because of immature enzyme systems. [32] Additional rich seafood sources of DHA include caviar (3400 mg per 100 grams), anchovies (1292 mg per 100 grams), mackerel (1195 mg per 100 grams), and cooked herring (1105 mg per 100 grams). While the potential roles of DHA in the mechanisms of Alzheimer's disease are under active research,[10] studies of fish oil supplements, which contain DHA, have failed to support claims of preventing cardiovascular diseases. Both kinetic parameters are independent of brain blood flow, thus they can represent brain DHA metabolism at rest or during changes in response to drugs, disease or physiological disturbance of blood flow. DHA and arachidonic acid (ARA) have been identified as important structural components of the highly specialized membrane lipids of the human central nervous system, with phospholipids of brain gray matter containing high proportions of DHA. Rich sources of DHA include marine fish and shellfish. DHA is the active component in fish. One study showed that infants fed formula supplemented with DHA (0.36%) and ARA (0.72%) had fewer episodes of bronchiolitis and bronchitis at age 5, 7, and 9 months compared to infants fed nonsupplemented formula. [24], The enzyme CYP2C9 metabolizes DHA to epoxydocosapentaenoic acids (EDPs; primarily 19,20-epoxy-eicosapentaenoic acid isomers [i.e. DHA- and ARA-supplemented infant formula are now available in most countries, including North America, South America, Europe, Australia, New Zealand, and Asia. Med Sci (Paris). In the United States, approximately 3600 deaths each year were attributed to SIDS from 1992 to 1999. FIGURE 13.5. This enzyme is a hydroxylase that metabolizes arachidonic acid, docosahexaenoic acid, and other long chain fatty acids. The U.S. FDA has stated that it has no objections to the addition of DHA and ARA to formula for term infants. DHA plays a crucial role in the development and maintenance of the nervous system, demonstrated by its predominant existence in neural tissues. It was first used primarily in infant formulas. DHA (Docosahexaenoic acid) is an omega-3 fatty acid required for the healthy development of the brain and retina (eyesight). A signal generated in brain or retina to control DHA delivery from the liver has been postulated (Scott & Bazan, 1989); this would allow activation of DHA export during development, when DHA is required for active synapse and photoreceptor outer segment formation. Stanley I. Rapoport, Ameer Taha, in Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Brain and Neurological Health, 2014. The omega-6 to omega-3 ratio of infant formula may especially be important. Overall, DHA is involved in brain and retinal development, aging, memory formation, synaptic membrane function, photoreceptor biogenesis and function, and neuroprotection. Urlić M, Urlić I, Urlić H, Mašek T, Benzon B, Vitlov Uljević M, Vukojević K, Filipović N. Nutrients. DHA deficiency is associated with structural and functional abnormalities in the visual system. Effects of Different n6/n3 PUFAs Dietary Ratio on Cardiac Diabetic Neuropathy. Certain species of marine algae produced rich nutrients, leading to the development of an algae-based, vegetable-like oil that contains two polyunsaturated fatty acids, DHA and arachidonic acid. on page 308", "Beyond building better brains: bridging the docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) gap of prematurity", "Vitamin A and fish oils for preventing the progression of retinitis pigmentosa", "EPA and DHA Content of Fish Species. Fifty percent of a neuronal plasma membrane is composed of DHA. [7][6] This synthesis had been thought to occur through an elongation step followed by the action of Δ4-desaturase. [40][41] Light, oxygen exposure, and heat can all contribute to oxidation of fish oil supplements. Autopsy studies of term infants who died during the first year of life have also shown such PUFA differences in the brains and retinas of infants fed formulas not supplemented with DHA. Breast milk contains the long-chain PUFAs DHA and ARA. The levels of ARA found in breast milk are fairly consistent worldwide; however, DHA levels show considerable variability and appear to be linked to maternal dietary intake. This pathway is known as "Sprecher's shunt".[21][22]. The discovery of neuroprotectin D1 (NPD1), the finding that this lipid mediator is generated in early stages of brain ischemia-reperfusion, and the discovery of its ability to potentially inhibit ischemic brain damage, offer an alternative interpretation – that the cleavage of DHA and the subsequent synthesis of NPD1 during injury constitute a neuroprotective response (Figure 2). 2020 Aug 11;9(8):1096. doi: 10.3390/foods9081096. [6] It is now considered more likely that DHA is biosynthesized via a C24 intermediate followed by beta oxidation in peroxisomes. Studies of fatty acids in autopsied sudden-infant-death syndrome (SIDS) infants showed reductions in DHA of around 10% in those fed conventional formula compared to those fed breast milk. In addition to these essential marine sources, DHA is also synthesized via the elongation and desaturation of the 20-carbon eicosapentanoic acid (EPA 20:5(n-3)), or by elongation of the 18-carbon (n-3) fatty acid, a-linolenic acid (ALA; 18:3(n-3)) enriched in flax (Linaceae), walnut (Juglandaceae), chia (Salvia hispanica), and other photosynthesizing terrestrial plants (Figure 13.5) [15–17]. Brain Behav Immun. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is an omega-3 fatty acid that is a primary structural component of the human brain, cerebral cortex, skin, and retina.In physiological literature, it is given the name 22:6(n-3). Moreover, the deletion of phospholipase A2α, an enzyme that mediates the release of free DHA and AA, results in increased resistance to middle-cerebral artery occlusion-induced brain damage. [44], This article is about the omega-3 fatty acid. In addition, DHA and ARA are found in breast milk. By means of a postnatal mouse development experimental model, it has been determined that dietary ALA is first taken up by the liver, where elongation and desaturation to DHA occurs, followed by its supply through the bloodstream to brain and retina, coinciding with photoreceptor development and synaptogenesis [17,19]. Moreno-Indias I, Hernández-Castellano LE, Sánchez-Macías D, Morales-delaNuez A, Torres A, Argüello A, Castro N. Animals (Basel). An important body of evidence indicates that parenteral administration of fat emulsions that contain fish-oil-related lipids are safe, well tolerated, and beneficial in establishing an appropriate fatty acid profile in preterm infants. 2005 Jul-Aug;9(4):232-42. The turnover of DHA in the brain is very fast, more so than is generally realized. Risk stratification by the "EPA+DHA level" and the "EPA/AA ratio" focus on anti-inflammatory and antiarrhythmogenic effects of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids. COVID-19 is an emerging, rapidly evolving situation. [31], Ordinary types of cooked salmon contain 500–1500 mg DHA and 300–1000 mg EPA per 100 grams. DHA is key to the developing brain, accumulating in vast amounts during infant development and during the first few years of life. 1999 Sep;40(3):203. doi: 10.1006/phrs.1999.0493. Health benefits of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Infants born prematurely do not have time to accumulate DHA to the same level as their full-term counterparts. ", "FDA Announces New Qualified Health Claims for EPA and DHA Omega-3 Consumption and the Risk of Hypertension and Coronary Heart Disease", "Magical or Overrated? Worldwide, DHA concentrations in breast milk range from 0.07% to greater than 1.0% of the total fatty acids, with a mean of about 0.34%. In physiological literature, it is given the name 22:6(n-3). Another study tested over 70 mothers and their babies between 4 and 8 months of age. Recently, we found that NPD1 also increases in the hippocampus during seizures. When fed formula supplemented with DHA and ARA, preterm infants achieved normal growth in terms of weight, length, and head circumference and showed improved visual and mental development compared to the infants fed formula not supplemented with DHA and ARA. Studies with stable isotopes indicated that preterm and term infants can convert linoleic acid to ARA and ALA to DHA. Starting shortly after birth, half the babies received a standard infant formula, while the others received the same formula supplemented with DHA and ARA. Fish oil decreases the proliferation of tumour cells, whereas arachidonic acid, a longchain n-6 fatty acid, increases their proliferation. 2016. (DHA is found primarily in fish and seafood.4 In bicuculline-induced status epilepticus, both free DHA and AA increase (as seen in rapidly-isolated synaptosomes), suggesting the activation of phospholipases A2 that hydrolyze membrane phospholipids containing these polyunsaturated fatty acids. [14] DHA comprises 40% of the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in the brain and 60% of the PUFAs in the retina. Several studies have shown that preterm babies supplemented with DHA scored higher on visual acuity tests compared to those who did not receive DHA.35 The impact of DHA on the visual acuity of nonpreterm infants is not clear because of inconsistent findings,36 which may be due to methodological differences between studies (type, concentration, and duration of DHA supplementation; methods used for assessing outcomes). DHA is present at low levels in meat and eggs, but is not usually present in infant formulas. All of the above studies support the importance of DHA and ARA for normal neural development. The beneficial neurophysiological actions of DHA occur in part through its direct maintenance of neuronal plasma membrane fluidity and functional integrity, and in part through the generation of docosanoids. Structure of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). In Tg2576 mice, DHA supplementation noticeably reduced Aβ42 accumulation and oxidative damage, corrected synaptic deficits, and improved cognitive function (Cole and Frautschy, 2006). The effect of DHA and ARA in infant formula on problem solving at 10 months of age was evaluated. 2004 Nov;29(7):673-85. doi: 10.1007/s00059-004-2602-4. DHA is also commercially manufactured from microalgae: Crypthecodinium cohnii and another of the genus Schizochytrium.

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